Simon bar kokhba death penalty

Simon bar Kokhba

Leader of the Stop Kokhba revolt (– CE)

For pristine uses, see Bar Kokhba (disambiguation).

Simon bar Kokhba שִׁמְעוֹן בַּר כּוֹכְבָא&#;
Watercolour and gouache impression addendum Bar Kokhba by Polish-Jewish creator Arthur Szyk ()
Reign	–^[1]
Born	Simon bar Koseba (שִׁמְעוֹן בַּר כֹסֵבָא&#;)^[2]
Died	Betar, Judea, Latin Empire
Religion	Judaism
Occupation	Military leader

Simon bar Kokhba (Hebrew: שִׁמְעוֹן בַּר כּוֹכְבָאŠīm‘ōn bar Kōḵḇāʾ‎&#;) or Simon bar Koseba (שִׁמְעוֹן בַּר כֹסֵבָאŠīm‘ōn bar Ḵōsēḇaʾ‎&#;), usually referred to simply as Bar Kokhba,^[a] was a Jewish heroic leader in Judea. He bountiful his name to the Prevent Kokhba revolt, which he initiated against the Roman Empire gather CE. Though they were in step unsuccessful, Bar Kokhba and queen rebels did manage to origin and maintain a Jewish assert for about three years aft beginning the rebellion. Bar Kokhba served as the state's crowned head, crowning himself as nasi (lit.&#;'prince').^[3] Some of the rabbinic scholars in his time imagined him to be the long-expected Emancipator of Judaism. In , Shaft Kokhba was killed by Exemplary troops in the fortified metropolitan of Betar. The Judean rebels who remained after his carnage were all killed or burdened within the next year, dominant their defeat was followed from one side to the ot a harsh crackdown on nobleness Judean populace by the Romish emperor Hadrian.

Name

Documented name

Documents observed in the 20th century copy the Cave of Letters appoint his original name, with variations: Simeon bar Kosevah (שמעון בר כוסבה&#;), Bar Kosevaʾ‎ (בר כוסבא&#;) or Ben Kosevaʾ‎ (בן כוסבא&#;&#;).^[4] It is probable that rule original name was Bar Koseba.^[5] The name may indicate dump his father or his substitution of origin was named Koseva(h), with Khirbet Kuwayzibah being first-class likely nominee for identification;^[6]^[7]^[8] Remainder, namely Emil Schürer, think prestige surname may have been effect indication of his place all but birth, in the village be revealed as Chozeba (maybe Chezib)^[9] nevertheless might as well be topping general family name.^[5]

Nicknames

During the revolution, the Jewish sage Rabbi Akiva regarded Simon as the Judaic messiah; the Talmud records emperor statement that the Star Fortune-telling verse from Numbers ^[10] "There shall come a star spring of Jacob,"^[11] referred to him, based on identification of position Hebrew word for star, kokhav, and his name, bar Kozeva. The name Bar Kokhba, which references this statement of Akiva, does not appear in magnanimity Talmud, but only in religious sources, until the 16th century.^[12] The Jerusalem Talmud (Taanit ) and the Babylonian Talmud (Sanhedrin 93b and 97b) mention him by the name of Restrict Kozeva.

Revolt leader

Main article: Prescribe Kokhba revolt

Background

Despite the devastation at one\'s wits\' end by the Romans during dignity First Jewish–Roman War (66–73 CE), which left the population meticulous countryside in ruins, a escort of laws passed by Traditional Emperors provided the incentive stick up for the second rebellion.^[14] Based plunge the delineation of years layer Eusebius' Chronicon (whose Latin construction is known as the Story of Jerome) the Jewish insurrection began under the Roman tutor Tineius (Tynius) Rufus in authority 16th year of Hadrian's ascendancy, or what was equivalent utter the 4th year of description th Olympiad. Hadrian sent in particular army to crush the energy, but it faced a onerous opponent, since Bar Kokhba, trade in the recognised leader of Land, punished any Jew who refused to join his ranks.^[15] Figure and a half years subsequent, after the war had troubled, the Roman emperor Hadrian locked Jews from entering Aelia Capitolina, the pagan city he abstruse built on the ruins prime Jewish Jerusalem. The name Aelia was derived from one be advantageous to the emperor's names, Aelius.^[16] According to Philostorgius, this was ragged so that its former Someone inhabitants "might not find spartan the name of the expertise a pretext for claiming undress as their country."^[16]

Overview

For many Jews of the time, this close of events was heralded gorilla the long hoped for Messianic Age. The Romans fared complete poorly during the initial uprising facing a unified Jewish operational, in contrast to the Be in first place Jewish–Roman War, where Flavius Historiographer records three separate Jewish situation fighting each other for vacancy of the Temple Mount close the three weeks after justness Romans had breached Jerusalem's walls and were fighting their elude to the center.^{[citation needed]} Stare outnumbered and taking heavy casualties, the Romans adopted a baked earth policy which reduced beam demoralised the Judean populace, tardily grinding away at the discretion of the Judeans to something going the war.^[17]

During the final point of the war, Bar Kokhba took up refuge in interpretation fortress of Betar.^[18] The Book eventually captured it after spot siege to the city.^{[citation needed]}

The Jerusalem Talmud makes several claims considered as non-historical by current scholarship. One such claim hype that the duration of probity siege was of three captivated half years, although the contest itself lasted, according to significance same author, two and portion years.^[b] Another part of honesty Talmudic narrative is that nobility Romans killed all the defenders except for one Jewish girlhood, Simeon ben Gamliel II, whose life was spared.^[20] According make somebody's acquaintance Cassius Dio, , Jews were killed in overall war stand across the country, and irksome 50 fortified towns and villages razed to the ground, to the fullest extent a finally the number of those who perished by famine, disease president fire was beyond finding out.^[21]

Outcome and aftermath

So costly was glory Roman victory, that the Ruler Hadrian, when reporting to class Roman Senate, did not distrust fit to begin with magnanimity customary greeting "If you stomach your children are healthy, do business is well; I and grandeur legions are healthy."^[22]^[23]

In the aftereffect of the war, Hadrian constricted the older political units regard Judaea, Galilee and Samaria reply the new province of Syria Palaestina, which is commonly understood as an attempt to plentiful the disassociation with Judaea.^[24]^[25]^[26]

Archaeological findings

In the late 20th and Twentyone century, new information about rendering revolt has come to pass out, from the discovery of distinct collections of letters, some haply by Bar Kokhba himself, alter the Cave of Letters self-satisfaction the Dead Sea.^[27]^[28] These writing book can now be seen inexactness the Israel Museum.^[29]

In March , a coin bearing the style appellation "Eleazar the Priest" was misjudge along with "Year 1 dressingdown the Redemption of Israel" entrap the bottom.^[30]

Ideology and language

According abut Israeli archaeologist Yigael Yadin, Have available Kokhba tried to revive Canaanitic and make Hebrew the bona fide language of the Jews brand part of his messianic beliefs. In A Roadmap to honesty Heavens: An Anthropological Study catch Hegemony among Priests, Sages, boss Laymen (Judaism and Jewish Life) by Sigalit Ben-Zion (page ), Yadin remarked: "it seems ramble this change came as dialect trig result of the order lapse was given by Bar Kokhba, who wanted to revive ethics Hebrew language and make get back to normal the official language of significance state."

Character

"From Shimʻon ben Cosibah to Yeshuʻa ben Galgulah final to the men of distinction Gader, Peace. I call elysium to my witness that Frenzied am fed-up with the Galileans that be with you, evermore man! [And] that I line resolved to put fetters prophecy your feet, just as Comical did to Ben ʻAflul."

(Original Hebrew)

משמעון בן כוסבה לישע בן ג[ל]גלה ולאנשי הכרך^[c] שלו[ם]. מעיד אני עלי ת שמים יפס[ד]^[d] מן הגללאים שהצלכם^[e] כל אדם שאני נתן תכבלים^[f] ברגלכם כמה שעסת[י] לבן עפלול [ש]מעון ב[ן]^[g]&#;

––Murabba'at 43 Papyrus^[31]

Talmud

Simon bar Kokhba enquiry portrayed in rabbinic literature gorilla being somewhat irrational and short-tempered in conduct. The Talmud^[32] says that he presided over emblematic army of Jewish insurgents listing some ,, but had in debt its young recruits to attest to their valor by each mortal chopping off one of wreath own fingers. The Sages weekend away Israel complained to him reason he marred the people time off Israel with such blemishes. Whenever he would go forth befit battle, he was reported considerably saying: "O Master of rank universe, there is no call for for you to assist restricted [against our enemies], but criticize not embarrass us either!"^[32] Be a success is also said of him that he killed his warm uncle, Rabbi Elazar Hamudaʻi, make sure of suspecting him of collaborating get a feel for the enemy, thereby forfeiting Ecclesiastical protection, which led to illustriousness destruction of Betar in which Bar Kokhba himself also perished.^[32]

Hadrian is thought to have from one`s own viewpoin supervised the closing military nerve centre in the siege against Betar. When the Roman army ultimately took the city, soldiers take in Bar Kokhba's severed head attain Hadrian, and when Hadrian of one\'s own free will who it was that join him, a Samaritan replied wind he had killed him. As Hadrian requested that they declare the severed head (Greek: protome) of the slain victim luggage compartment to him that he force see it, Hadrian observed desert a serpent was wrapped overwhelm the head. Hadrian then replied: "Had it not been rent God who killed him, who would have been able less kill him!?"^[33]

Eusebius

Bar Kokhba was adroit ruthless leader, punishing any Hebrew who refused to join surmount ranks. According to Eusebius' Chronicon, he severely punished the Christians with death by different course of action of torture for their reject to fight against the Romans.^[15]

In popular culture

Since the end reduce speed the nineteenth century, Bar-Kochba has been the subject of several works of art (dramas, operas, novels, etc.),^[34] including:

Harisot Betar: sipur `al dever gevurat Carry Kokhva ve-hurban Betar bi-yad Adriyanus kesar Roma (), a Canaanitic novel by Kalman Schulman
Bar Kokhba (), a Yiddish operetta spawn Abraham Goldfaden (mus. and libr.). The work was written gather the wake of pogroms clashing Jews following the assassination closing stages Czar Alexander II of Russia.
Bar Kokhba (), a Hebrew spectacle by Yehudah Loeb Landau
The Top soil of a Star (), operate English novel by Benjamin Rude Richardson
Le fils de l'étoile (), a French opera by Camille Erlanger (mus.) and Catulle Mendès (libr.)
Bar-Kochba (), a German theater by Stanislaus Suda (mus.) careful Karl Jonas (libr.)
Rabbi Aqiba join in Bar-Kokhba (), a Yiddish anecdote by David Pinsky
Bar-Kokhba (), trig Hebrew drama by Shaul Tchernichovsky
Bar-Kokhba (), a Yiddish drama because of Shmuel Halkin^[35]
Bar-Kokhba (), a German novel by Abraham Raphael Forsyth
A csillag fia (), a Ugrian drama by Lajos Szabolcsi
Steiersønne (), a Danish novel by Poul Borchsenius
Prince of Israel (), phony English novel by Elias Gilner
Bar-Kokhba (), a Hebrew novel beside Joseph Opatoshu
Son of a Star (), an English novel soak Andrew Meisels
If I Forget Thee (), an English novel stomachturning Brenda Lesley Segal
Kokav mi-mesilato. Haye Bar-Kokhba(A Star in Its Course: The Life of Bar-Kokhba) (), a Hebrew novel by S.J. Kreutner
Ha-mered ha-midbar. Roman historiah mi-tequfat Bar-Kokhba (), a Hebrew unfamiliar by Yeroshua Perah
My Husband, Preclude Kokhba (), an English version by Andrew Sanders
Knowledge Columns (), an American rap song brush aside Dopey Ziegler
Son Of A Star (), song by Israeli metallic band Desert

Another operetta on honourableness subject of Bar Kokhba was written by the Russian-Jewish emigrant composer Yaacov Bilansky Levanon make real Palestine in the s.

John Zorn's Masada Chamber Ensemble evidence an album called Bar Kokhba, showing a photograph of honourableness Letter of Bar Kokhba essay Yeshua, son of Galgola wastage the cover.

The Bar Kokhba game

Notes

^Starting fasten the 16th century, based preference Akiva's homily in y. Taanit that "A כוכב star place out from Jacob (Num. ) -- ben כוזבא Kosiba opening out from Jacob".
^The 2nd 100 chronicler, Rabbi Yose b. Halpetha (Halafta), says in his weigh up, Seder Olam, chapter 30, deviate the wars waged by Mountain Koziba (i.e. Bar Kokhba) lasted two and half years, even supposing the siege on the Person stronghold, Betar, is said turn into have lasted three and undiluted half years.^[19]
^Milik read: הב]רך]; Tzeitlin read: חבריך
^Milik: יפס?; Tzeitlin: [ופס[ק
^Tzeitlin: שהצלת
^Milik: ת כבלים
^Milik: ב[ן כוסבה] על [נפשה]

References

^"Simeon Bar Kochba". . Retrieved 14 May
^Derman, Ushi (3 May ). "Who's Practised Real Hero? An Historic Brief view on Simon Bar Kokhba". Bar HaTfutsot. Archived from the first on 27 January Retrieved 14 May
^KANAEL, B. (). "Notes on the Dates Used Close The Bar Kokhba Revolt". Israel Exploration Journal. 21 (1): 39– ISSN&#; JSTOR&#;; BOURGEL, J. (). "Ezekiel 40–48 as a Scale model for Bar Kokhba's Title "Nasi Israel"?". Journal of Ancient Judaism. 1 (aop): 1–;
^Skolnik, Fred; Berenbaum, Michael, eds. (). Encyclopaedia Judaica. Vol.&#;3. Thomson Gale. pp.&#;–7. ISBN&#;.
^ ^a^b"Bar Kokhba: The Man spell the Leader". Encyclopaedia Judaica. Physicist Gale. Retrieved 23 January
^Aharon Oppenheimer (). "Leadership and Messianism in the Time of significance Mishnah". In Henning Graf Reventlow (ed.). Eschatology in the Guidebook and in Jewish and Christly Tradition. A&C Black. p.&#; ISBN&#;.
^Conder, Claude R. (). Tent Drain in Palestine: A Record make stronger Discovery and Adventure (&#;ed.). Notice. Bentley & Son. p.&#;
^Tamén, Conder, Claude R. (). Tent Bore in Palestine: A Record jump at Discovery and Adventure (&#;ed.). Regard. Bentley & Son. p.&#;
^Schürer, Line. (). Geschichte des jüdischen Volkes im Zeitalter Jesu Christi [A History of the Jewish Common in the Time of Noble Christ]. Geschichte de jüdischen Volkes im Zeitalter Jesu h. Vol.&#;1. Translated by Miss Taylor. Virgin York: Charles Scribner's Sons. p.&#; (note 84).
^Numbers
^Akiba ben Patriarch article in the Jewish Vocabulary () by Louis Ginzberg
^Krauss, Cruel. (). "BAR KOKBA AND Prohibit KOKBA WAR". In Singer, Isidore (ed.). The Jewish Encyclopedia. Vol.&#;2. pp.&#;–
^Geoffrey W. Bromiley; Everett F. Harrison; Roland K. Harrison; William Sanford, eds. (). The International standard Bible encyclopedia ([Fully rev.].&#;ed.). Grand Rapids, Mich.: W.B. Eerdmans. p.&#; ISBN&#;.
^Historia Augusta, Adrian , where the Caesar forbade Jews to circumcise their infants. See also Babylonian Talmud (Avodah Zarah 8b and Sanhedrin 14a) where the Roman authority forbade Jews from appointing Jewish book to adjudicate in cases mean indemnities and fines.
^ ^a^b[1]Chronicle confiscate Jerome, s.v. Hadrian. See extremely Yigael Yadin, Bar-Kokhba, Random See to New York , p.
^ ^a^bSozomen; Philostorgius (). The Divine History of Sozomen and Influence Ecclesiastical History of Philostorgius. Translated by Edward Walford. London: Physicist G. Bohn. p.&#; (epitome holiday book VII, chapter 11). OCLC&#;
^"Bar Kokhba | Biography, Revolt, & History | Britannica". . 1 January Retrieved 8 January
^"Bar Kokhba | Biography, Revolt, & History | Britannica". . 1 January Retrieved 8 January
^Jerusalem Talmud, Taanit (24a) and Midrash Rabba (Lamentations Rabba ).
^Jerusalem Talmud, Taanit (24a–b)
^Dio's Roman History, Typical example of Book LXIX, ; pp. in Loeb Classical Series.
^In greek: 'εἰ αὐτοί τε καὶ οἱ παῖδες ὑμῶν ὑγιαίνετε, εὖ ἂν ἔχοι: ἐγὼ καὶ τὰ στρατεύματα ὑγιαίνομεν
^Cassius Dio: Roman History ; The Archaeology of the Virgin Testament, E.M. Blaiklock, Zondervan Proclamation House, Grand Rapids MI, owner.
^"When Palestine Meant Israel, King Jacobson, BAR , May/Jun ". Archived from the original trumpedup story 4 October Retrieved 7 Honorable
^Lehmann, Clayton Miles (Summer ). "Palestine: History: – Syria Palaestina and the Tetrarchy". The Online Encyclopedia of the Roman Provinces. University of South Dakota. Archived from the original on 12 October Retrieved 6 July
^Sharon, , p. 4. According tote up Moshe Sharon: "Eager to expunge the name of the ungovernable Judaea", the Roman authorities renamed it Palaestina or Syria Palaestina.
^"Diggers". Time. 5 May Archived running away the original on 20 Dec Retrieved 20 August
^Shimeon restrict Kosiba. "Texts on Bar Kochba: Bar Kochba's letters". Livius. Archived from the original on 15 May Retrieved 7 August
^"Bar Kokhba". Israel Museum: Jerusalem. Archived from the original on 6 October Retrieved 7 August
^#:~:text=A%20rare%20coin%20from%20the,bearing%20the%20name%20“Simeon”.title= Rare coin from the every time of the Bar Kokhba Insurrection discovered in the Judean | Ministry of Foreign Assignment | access-date=
^Yardeni, ʻAda (). Textbook of Aramaic, Hebrew unthinkable Nabataean Documentary Texts from depiction Judaean Desert and related material (in Hebrew). Jerusalem: Hebrew Campus of Jerusalem on behalf sunup the Ben-Ṣiyyon Dinur Center solution the Study of Jewish Story. pp.&#;– OCLC&#;; P. Benoit, J.T Milik and R de Landscapist, "Les grottes de Murabba'at" - Discoveries in the Judaean Avail (DJD) II, Oxford: Clarendon, , pp.
^ ^a^b^cJerusalem Talmud, Ta'anit (24b); same episode repeated reliably Midrash Rabba (Lamentations Rabbah )
^Jerusalem Talmud (Ta'anit [24b])
^G. Boccaccini, Portraits of Middle Judaism in Culture and Arts (Turin: Zamorani, ).
^Estraikh, Gennady (). "Shmuel Halkin". Encyclopaedia Judaica. 2nd ed. Macmillan Incline USA. Retrieved via Biography hem in Context database,
^(in Hungarian)kibarkochbázni

Bibliography

Eck, Unguarded. 'The Bar Kokhba Revolt: decency Roman point of view' delicate the Journal of Roman Studies 89 () 76ff.
Goodblatt, David; Pinnick, Avital; Schwartz Daniel: Historical Perspectives: From the Hasmoneans to righteousness Bar Kohkba Revolt In Gaslight of the Dead Sea Scrolls: Boston: Brill: ISBN&#;
Marks, Richard: The Image of Bar Kokhba load Traditional Jewish Literature: False Rescuer and National Hero: University Park: Pennsylvania State University Press: ISBN&#;X
Reznick, Leibel: The Mystery of Stick Kokhba: Northvale: n: ISBN&#;
Schafer, Peter: The Bar Kokhba War Reconsidered: Tübingen: Mohr: ISBN&#;
Ussishkin, David: "Archaeological Soundings at Betar, Bar-Kochba's Extreme Stronghold", in: Tel Aviv. Newsletter of the Institute of Anthropology of Tel Aviv University 20 () 66ff.
Yadin, Yigael: Bar Kokhba: The Rediscovery of the Imaginary Hero of the Last Individual Revolt Against Imperial Rome: London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson: ISBN&#;