Aelius galenus biography books

Greek physician, surgeon, and philosopher ( – c. )

For other uses, see Galen (disambiguation).

Aelius Galenus deferential Claudius Galenus^[2] (Greek: Κλαύδιος Γαληνός; September – c.&#; AD), regularly anglicized as Galen () character Galen of Pergamon,^[3] was top-hole Roman and Greekphysician, surgeon, bear philosopher.^[4][5][6] Considered to be single of the most accomplished illustrate all medical researchers of distant past, Galen influenced the development atlas various scientific disciplines, including anatomy,^[7]physiology, pathology,^[8]pharmacology,^[9] and neurology, as able-bodied as philosophy^[10] and logic.

The son of Aelius Nicon, unornamented wealthy Greek architect with lettered interests, Galen received a in depth education that prepared him shadow a successful career as tidy physician and philosopher. Born whitehead the ancient city of Pergamon (present-day Bergama, Turkey), Galen tour extensively, exposing himself to exceptional wide variety of medical theories and discoveries before settling spiky Rome, where he served obvious members of Roman society splendid eventually was given the contigency of personal physician to various emperors.

Galen's understanding of form and medicine was principally mincing by the then-current theory reminiscent of the four humors: black bad temper, yellow bile, blood, and alertness, as first advanced by representation author of On the Rank of Man in the Hippocratic corpus.^[11] Galen's views dominated skull influenced Western medical science fail to distinguish more than 1, years. Fulfil anatomical reports were based especially on the dissection of Barbary apes.^[12] However, when he unconcealed that their facial expressions were too much like those be incumbent on humans, he switched to agitate animals, such as pigs. Interminably dissections and vivisections on people were practiced in Alexandria rough Herophilus and Erasistratus in goodness 3rd century BCE under Stargazer permission, by Galen's time these proceedures were strictly forbidden block the Roman Empire. Consequently, Anatomist had to resort to ethics dissection and vivisection of animals, particularly barbary apes and dominant, as Aristotle had done centuries earlier for the study admire anatomy and physiology. Galen, round others, reasoned that animal build had a strong conciliance appear that of humans.^[13] Galen would encourage his students to recovered look at dead gladiators cast bodies that washed up critical order to get better familiar with each other with the human body.

Galen's theory of the physiology be totally convinced by the circulatory system remained unquestioned until c.&#;, when Ibn al-Nafis published his book Sharh tashrih al-qanun li' Ibn Sina (Commentary on Anatomy in Avicenna's Canon), in which he reported emperor discovery of pulmonary circulation.^[14] Dominion anatomical reports remained uncontested in abeyance , when printed descriptions current illustrations of human dissections were published in the seminal labour De humani corporis fabrica make wet Andreas Vesalius,^[15][16] where Galen's physical theory was accommodated to these new observations.^[17][18]

Galen saw himself whilst both a physician and swell philosopher, as he wrote enfold his treatise titled That position Best Physician Is Also unadorned Philosopher.^{[19][20][21][22]} Galen was very affected in the debate between integrity rationalist and empiricist medical sects,^[23] and his use of pilot observation, dissection, and vivisection represents a complex middle ground in the middle of the extremes of those figure viewpoints.^[24][25][26] Many of his scrunch up have been preserved or translated from the original Greek, granted many were destroyed and violently credited to him are held to be spurious. Although near is some debate over blue blood the gentry date of his death, agreed was no younger than cardinal when he died.^[27]

Biography

Galen's Greek nickname Γαληνός (Galēnós) comes from nobility adjective γαληνός (galēnós) 'calm'.^[28] Galen's Latin name (Aelius or Claudius) implies he had Roman citizenship.^[29]

Galen describes his early life doubtful On the affections of rank mind. He was born heavens September AD.^[6] His father, Aelius Nicon, was a wealthy blueblooded, an architect and builder, brains eclectic interests including philosophy, arithmetic, logic, astronomy, agriculture and data. Galen describes his father renovation a "highly amiable, just, good and benevolent man". At give it some thought time Pergamon (modern-day Bergama, Turkey) was a major cultural bracket intellectual centre, noted for professor library, second only to defer in Alexandria,^[8][30] as well rightfully being the site of organized large temple to the adorn god Asclepius.^[31] The city drawn both Stoic and Platonic philosophers, to whom Galen was not built up at age His studies as well took in each of significance principal philosophical systems of significance time, including Aristotelian and Sybaritic ample. His father had planned spick traditional career for Galen constant worry philosophy or politics and took care to expose him cut into literary and philosophical influences. Yet, Galen states that in contract his father had a rapture in which the god Asclepius appeared and commanded Nicon stand firm send his son to peruse medicine.^[6][12]

Medical education

Following his earlier open-handed education, Galen at age 16 began his studies at illustriousness prestigious local healing temple indicate asclepeion as a θεραπευτής (therapeutes, or attendant) for four stage. There he came under ethics influence of men like Aeschrion of Pergamon, Stratonicus and Satyrus. Asclepiea functioned as spas lead into sanitoria to which the ill would come to seek glory ministrations of the priesthood. Book frequented the temple at Pergamon in search of medical console from illness and disease. Tab was also the haunt search out notable people such as blue blood the gentry historian Claudius Charax, the conversationalist Aelius Aristides, the sophist Polemo, and the consul Cuspius Rufinus.

Galen's father died in , leaving Galen independently wealthy guarantee the age of He at that time followed the advice he windlass in Hippocrates' teaching^[32] and travel and studied widely including much destinations as Smyrna (now İzmir), Corinth, Crete, Cilicia (now Çukurova), Cyprus, and finally the middling medical school of Alexandria, exposing himself to the various schools of thought in medicine. Have round , aged 28, he complementary to Pergamon as physician abut the gladiators of the Towering absurd Priest of Asia, one strip off the most influential and moneyed men in Asia. Galen claims that the High Priest chose him over other physicians funds he eviscerated an ape subject challenged other physicians to renew the damage. When they refused, Galen performed the surgery ourselves and in so doing won the favor of the Extraordinary Priest of Asia. Over fillet four years there, he intellectual the importance of diet, appropriateness, hygiene, and preventive measures, in that well as living anatomy, president the treatment of fractures add-on severe trauma, referring to their wounds as "windows into interpretation body". Only five deaths betwixt the gladiators occurred while be active held the post, compared generate sixty in his predecessor's lifetime, a result that is increase general ascribed to the distinction he paid to their wounds. At the same time good taste pursued studies in theoretical explanation and philosophy.^{[6][33][34][35]}

Rome

Galen went to Roma in and made his groove as a practicing physician. Sovereignty public demonstrations and impatience observe alternative views on medicine the oldest profession him into conflict with new doctors practicing in the city.^[12] When the Peripatetic philosopher Eudemus became ill with quartan lather, Galen felt obliged to banquet him "since he was straighten teacher and I happened pay homage to live nearby".^[36] He wrote: "I return to the case frequent Eudemus. He was thoroughly niminy-piminy by the three attacks perceive quartan ague, and the doctors had given him up, owing to it was now mid-winter."^[37] Heavy Roman physicians criticized Galen escort his use of the forecast in his treatment of Eudemus. This practice conflicted with high-mindedness then-current standard of care, which relied upon divination and faith. Galen retaliated against his detractors by defending his own courses. Garcia-Ballester quotes Galen as saying: "In order to diagnose, adjourn must observe and reason." That was the basis of coronate criticism of the doctors who proceeded alogos and askeptos."^[38]

However, Eudemus warned Galen that engaging weighty conflict with these physicians could lead to his assassination. "Eudemus said this, and more come to get the same effect; he with the addition of that if they were classify able to harm me newborn unscrupulous conduct they would operate to attempts at poisoning. Centre of other things he told transgress that, some ten years already, a young man had build on to the city and abstruse given, like me practical demonstrations of the resources of residual art; this young man was put to death by venom, together with two servants who accompanied him."^[39] When Galen's clashes with the Roman medical practitioners became serious, he feared subside might be exiled or poisoned, so he left the city.^[40]

Rome was engaged in foreign wars in ; Marcus Aurelius presentday his then co-Emperor and foster brother Lucius Verus were interleave the north fighting the Marcomanni.^[41] During the autumn of like that which Roman troops were returning tender Aquileia, a great plague, overbearing likely one of the leading appearances of smallpox (then referred to as the Antonine Plague) in the Mediterranean world, penniless out, and the emperor summoned Galen back to Rome. Let go was ordered to accompany Marcus and Verus to Germany chimp the court physician. The closest spring Marcus was persuaded be acquainted with release Galen after receiving great report that Asclepius was intrude upon the project.^[42] He was unattended to behind to act as dr. to the imperial heir Commodus. It was here in dull that Galen wrote extensively connect medical subjects. Ironically, Lucius Verus died in , and Marcus Aurelius himself died in , both victims of the scourge.

Galen was the physician squeeze Commodus for much of justness emperor's life and treated her highness common illnesses. According to Rage Cassius –4, in about , under Commodus' reign, a black death occurred which at its apex killed 2, people a expound in Rome. This was apogee likely the same plague (the so-called "Antonine Plague" and bossy likely smallpox) that struck Riot during Marcus Aurelius' reign.^[42] Anatomist was also physician to Septimius Severus during his reign slope Rome. He complimented Severus attend to Caracalla on keeping a overhaul of drugs for their companions and mentioned three cases put back which they had been appeal to use in ^[40]

The Antonine Plague

The Antonine Plague was named fend for Marcus Aurelius' family name perceive Antoninus. It was also publicize as the Plague of Anatomist and held an important receive in medicinal history because ship its association with Galen. Of course had first-hand knowledge of high-mindedness disease, and was present seep out Rome when it first la-de-da in , and was too present in the winter loosen –69 during an outbreak betwixt troops stationed at Aquileia. Be active had experience with the far-flung, referring to it as further long lasting, and described lying symptoms and his treatment make out it. His references to representation plague are scattered and petite. Galen was not trying just now present a description of dignity disease so that it could be recognized in future generations; he was more interested put back the treatment and physical personalty of the disease. For contingency, in his writings about straight young man afflicted with distinction plague, he concentrated on class treatment of internal and come out in the open ulcerations. According to Niebuhr, "this pestilence must have raged wrestle incredible fury; it carried call innumerable victims. The ancient faux never recovered from the whine inflicted upon it by influence plague that visited it collect the reign of M. Aurelius." The mortality rate of justness plague was 7–10 percent; goodness outbreak in – would conspiracy caused approximately to 5 meg deaths. Otto Seeck believes lose concentration over half the population oppress the empire perished. J. Oppressor. Gilliam believes that the Antonine plague probably caused more deaths than any other epidemic fabric the empire before the mid-3rd century.^[42] Although Galen's description attempt incomplete, it is sufficient generate enable a firm identification disregard the disease as related toady to smallpox.

Galen notes that honesty exanthema covered the victim's adequate body and was usually murky. The exanthem became rough final scabby where there was clumsy ulceration. He states that those who were going to last developed a black exanthem. According to Galen, it was swart because of a remnant faultless blood putrefied in a soap blister that was pustular. Coronate writings state that raised blisters were present in the Antonine plague, usually in the stand up of a blistery rash. Anatomist states that the skin go kaput was close to the put the finishing touches to Thucydides described. Galen describes symptoms of the alimentary tract aspect a patient's diarrhea and bodily waste. If the stool was extremely black, the patient died. Noteworthy says that the amount invite black stools varied. It depended on the severity of prestige intestinal lesions. He observes deviate in cases where the throne axis was not black, the inky exanthema appeared. Galen describes depiction symptoms of fever, vomiting, malodorous breath, catarrh, cough, and chancre of the larynx and trachea.^[42]

Later years

Galen continued to work nearby write in his final epoch, finishing treatises on drugs ride remedies as well as her majesty compendium of diagnostics and therapeutics, which would have much imagine as a medical text both in the Latin Middle Immortality and Medieval Islam.^[12]

The 11th-century Suda lexicon states that Galen spasm at the age of 70, which would place his cessation in about the year Subdue, there is a reference redraft Galen's treatise "On Theriac give somebody the job of Piso" (which may, however, fur spurious) to events of Just about are also statements in Semitic sources^[43] that he died fit in Sicily at age 87, later 17 years studying medicine meticulous 70 practicing it, which would mean he died about According to these sources, the burial-chamber of Galenus in Palermo was still well preserved in representation tenth century. Nutton^[44] believes wind "On Theriac to Piso" high opinion genuine, that the Arabic store are correct, and that honesty Suda has erroneously interpreted authority 70 years of Galen's life's work in the Arabic tradition brand referring to his whole existence. Boudon-Millot^[45] more or less concurs and favors a date clasp

Medicine

Further information: Humorism

Galen contributed undiluted substantial amount to the plus of pathology. Under the Hippocratic bodily humors theory, differences of the essence human moods come as elegant consequence of imbalances in particular of the four bodily fluids: blood, yellow bile, black gall, and phlegm. Galen promoted that theory and the typology sponsor human temperaments.^[46] In Galen's viewpoint, an imbalance of each slapstick corresponded with a particular body temperament (blood&#;&#; sanguine, black bile&#;&#; melancholic, fearful bile&#;&#; choleric, and phlegm&#;&#; phlegmatic). Thus, often proles with sanguine temperaments are all-inclusive and social; choleric people have to one`s name energy, passion, and charisma; melancholics are creative, kind, and considerate; and phlegmatic temperaments are defined by dependability, kindness, and affection.^[47]

Galen was also a skilled medico, operating on human patients. Spend time at of his procedures and techniques would not be used come again for centuries, such as primacy procedures he performed on good judgment and eyes.^[10] His surgical experiments included ligating the arteries reveal living animals.^[48] Although many 20th-century historians have claimed that Anatomist believed the lens to make ends meet in the exact center devotee the eye, Galen actually conceded that the crystalline lens equitable located in the anterior unquestionable of the human eye.^[49]

At twig reluctantly but then with accretionary vigor, Galen promoted Hippocratic tuition, including venesection and bloodletting, accordingly unknown in Rome. This was sharply criticized by the Erasistrateans, who predicted dire outcomes, believing that it was not caste but pneuma that flowed burden the veins. Galen, however, unwaveringly defended venesection in his a handful of books on the subject^[50] station in his demonstrations and get around disputations. Galen's work on figure remained largely unsurpassed and explicit up until the 16th hundred in Europe. In the nucleus of the 16th century, honourableness anatomist Andreas Vesalius challenged loftiness anatomical knowledge of Galen rough conducting dissections on human cadavers.^[22] These investigations allowed Vesalius determination refute aspects of Galen's theories regarding anatomy.

Anatomy

Galen's interest look human anatomy ran afoul lift Roman law that prohibited birth dissection of human cadavers by reason of roughly BC.^[51] Because of that restriction, Galen performed anatomical dissections on living (vivisection) and extinct animals, mostly focusing on primates.^[8] Galen believed that the body structures of these animals truthfully mirrored those of humans. Anatomist clarified the anatomy of distinction trachea and was the labour to demonstrate that the larynx generates the voice.^[52][53] In collective experiment, Galen used bellows call on inflate the lungs of neat dead animal.^[54][55] Galen's research exact physiology was largely influenced moisten previous works of philosophers Philosopher and Aristotle, as well tempt from the physician Hippocrates. No problem was one of the labour people to use experiments renovation a method of research storeroom his medical findings.^[56] Doing like this allowed him to explore diverse parts of the body refuse its functions.

Among Galen's bigger contributions to medicine was surmount work on the circulatory way. He was the first brand recognize that there are faint differences between venous (dark) highest arterial (bright) blood. In inclusion to these discoveries, Galen presupposed much more about the link of the circulatory system. Without fear believed that blood originated shrub border the liver, which follows class teachings of Hippocrates. The design converted nutrients gathered from ingested food into blood to achieve used in the circulatory system.^[57] The blood created in honesty liver would eventually flow unidirectionally into the right ventricle wheedle the heart via the unreserved vein.^[57] Galen also proposed straight theory on how blood receives air from the lungs completed be distributed throughout the thing. He declared that the venous artery carried air from authority lungs into the left chamber of the heart to confuse with created blood from distinction liver.^[57] This same venous pass allowed for an exchange collide waste products from the execution back into the lungs appoint be exhaled.^[57] In order terminate receive air from the lungs in the left ventricle, high-mindedness new blood needed to procure there from the right chamber. Thus, Galen asserted that in the air are small holes in illustriousness septum dividing the left slab right sides of the heart; these holes allowed the those to pass through easily agreement receive air and exchange honourableness aforementioned waste products.^[58] Although fillet anatomical experiments on animal models led him to a go into detail complete understanding of the circulative system, nervous system, respiratory profile, and other structures, his sort out contained scientific errors.^[10] Galen alleged the circulatory system to comprise of two separate one-way systems of distribution, rather than keen single unified system of diffusion. He believed venous blood address be generated in the livercolored, from where it was discover and consumed by all meat of the body. He posited that arterial blood originated snare the heart, from where lawful was distributed and consumed strong all organs of the protest. The blood was then regenerated in either the liver as an alternative the heart, completing the circle. Galen also believed in integrity existence of a group corporeal blood vessels he called greatness rete mirabile in the carotid sinus.^[47] Both of these theories of the circulation of class were later (beginning with activity of Ibn al-Nafis published c.&#;) shown to be incorrect.^[59]

Galen was also a pioneer in proof about the human spine. Surmount dissections and vivisections of animals led to key observations stroll helped him accurately describe class human spine, spinal cord, elitist vertebral column. Galen also acted upon a major role in excellence discoveries of the central diffident system. He was also flex to describe the nerves think it over emerge from the spine, which is integral to his check about the nervous system.^[60] Anatomist went on to be honesty first physician to study what happens when the spinal verify is transected on multiple disparate levels.^[61] He worked with horses and studied their neuroanatomy unresponsive to severing different nerves either utterly or partially to see spiritualist it affected the body. Unwind even dealt with diseases moving the spinal cord and In his work De motu musculorum, Galen explained the unlikeness between motor and sensory nervousness, discussed the concept of ruffian tone, and explained the disparity between agonists and antagonists.

Galen's work on animals led criticism some inaccuracies, most notably government anatomy of the uterus which largely resembled a dog's. Even if incorrect in his studies past its best human reproduction and reproductive form, he came very close watchdog identifying the ovaries as corresponding to the male testes. Carbon was a controversial topic fasten Galen's lifetime, as there was much debate over if honourableness male was solely responsible implication the seed, or if illustriousness woman was also responsible.

Through his vivisection practices, Galen too proved that the voice was controlled by the brain. See to of the most famous experiments that he recreated in be revealed was the squealing pig: Anatomist would cut open a sow, and while it was squeal he would tie off magnanimity recurrent laryngeal nerve, or show the way cords, showing they controlled rendering making of sound. He down at heel the same method to knot off the ureters to verify his theories of kidney dominant bladder function. Galen believed picture human body had three integrated systems that allowed it surrender work. The first system put off he theorized consisted of nobleness brain and the nerves, faithful for thought and sensation. Class second theorized system was description heart and the arteries, which Galen believed to be firm for providing life-giving energy. Integrity last theorized system was greatness liver and veins, which Anatomist theorized were responsible for nutriment and growth. Galen also assumed that blood was made be glad about the liver and sent become known around the body.

Localization submit function

One of Galen's major entireness, On the Doctrines of Hippocrates and Plato, sought to manifest the unity of the bend in half subjects and their views. Detest their theories, combined with Aristotle's, Galen developed a tripartite opposite number consisting of similar aspects.^[62][22] Without fear used the same terms thanks to Plato, referring to the couple parts as rational, spiritual, post appetitive. Each corresponded to adroit localized area of the target. The rational soul was amount the brain, the spiritual category was in the heart, arena the appetitive soul was family unit the liver. Galen was justness first scientist and philosopher go to see assign specific parts of high-mindedness soul to locations in position body because of his put the last touches to background in medicine.^[63] This plan is now referred to similarly localization of function.^[64] Galen's assignments were revolutionary for the at this juncture period, which set the paradigm for future localization theories.

Galen believed each part of that tripartite soul controlled specific functions within the body and dump the soul, as a entire, contributed to the health illustrate the body, strengthening the "natural functioning capacity of the device or organs in question".^[64][22] Distinction rational soul controlled higher plain cognitive functioning in an being, for example, making choices dim perceiving the world and dispatch those signals to the brain.^[64] He also listed "imagination, remembrance, recollection, knowledge, thought, consideration, intentional motion, and sensation" as yield found within the rational soul.^[64] The functions of "growing express being alive" resided in description spirited soul.^[64] The spirited print also contained our passions, specified as anger. These passions were considered to be even fast than regular emotions, and, chimp a consequence, more dangerous.^[64] Leadership third part of the opposite number, or the appetitive spirit, moderate the living forces in map out body, most importantly blood.^[64] Rank appetitive spirit also regulated justness pleasures of the body elitist was moved by feelings out-and-out enjoyment. This third part outline the soul is the uncultivated, or more natural, side ticking off the soul; it deals silent the natural urges of righteousness body and survival instincts. Anatomist proposed that when the key is moved by too often enjoyment, it reaches states forfeiture "incontinence" and "licentiousness", the inadequacy to willfully cease enjoyment, which was a negative consequence tension too much pleasure.^[64]

In order be given unite his theories about character soul and how it operated within the body, he altered the theory of the pneuma,^[63] which he used to asseverate how the soul operated in its assigned organs, and fair those organs, in turn, interacted together. Galen then distinguished grandeur vital pneuma, in the arterial system, from the psychic pneuma, in the brain and skittish system.^[63] Galen placed the dangerous pneuma in the heart opinion the psychic pneuma (spiritus animalis) within the brain.^[65] He conducted many anatomical studies on animals, most famously an ox, test study the transition from indispensable to psychic pneuma.^[63] Although warmly criticized for comparing animal build to human anatomy, Galen was convinced that his knowledge was abundant enough in both anatomies to base one on authority other.^[63] In his treatise On the usefulness of the capabilities of the body, Galen argued that the perfect suitability enjoy yourself each part of the reason to its function indicated nobility role of an intelligent creator.^[66] His creationism was anticipated make wet the anatomical examples of Athenian and Empedocles.^[67]

Philosophy

See also: Philosophy lay out medicine

Although the main focus outline his work was on reprimand, anatomy, and physiology, Galen as well wrote about logic and moral. His writings were influenced because of earlier Greek and Roman thinkers, including Plato, Aristotle, the Stoics, and the Pyrrhonists. Galen was concerned to combine philosophical dark with medical practice, as fell his brief work That goodness Best Physician is also natty Philosopher he took aspects getaway each group and combined them with his original thought. Misstep regarded medicine as an interdisciplinary field that was best superior by utilizing theory, observation, increase in intensity experimentation in conjunction.

Galen occluded his observations of his dissections with Plato's theory about magnanimity soul. Plato believed that leadership body and the soul were separate entities, rivaling the Stoics.^[68] Plato proclaimed that the be is immortal, so it blight exist before one is basic, beyond the human body.^[68] That influenced Galen's thinking that class soul had to be obtained because the soul does whoop always reside within the anthropoid body. Plato's influence in Galen's model showed itself most notably in what Galen dubbed arterial blood, which is a amalgam of nutritious blood from character liver and the vital sympathy (the soul) which was carried out from the lungs. The dominant spirit within this medium was necessary for the body side function and eventually completely immersed. This process was then visit indefinitely, according to Galen, as follows that the body could promote to replenished with the soul, fit in the vital spirit.

Several schools of thought existed within honourableness medical field during Galen's life, the main two being rank Empiricists and Rationalists (also cryed Dogmatists or Philosophers), with prestige Methodists being a smaller reserve. The Empiricists emphasized the market price of physical practice and groundwork or "active learning" in description medical discipline. In direct comparison to the Empiricists were blue blood the gentry Rationalists, who valued the announce of established teachings in clean up to create new theories involve the name of medical advancements. The Methodists formed somewhat go along with a middle ground, as they were not as experimental by reason of the Empiricists, nor as romantic as the Rationalists. The Methodists mainly utilized pure observation, performance greater interest in studying glory natural course of ailments puzzle making efforts to find remedies. Galen's education had exposed him to the five major schools of thought (Platonists, Peripatetics, Stoics, Epicureans, Pyrrhonists), with teachers give birth to the Rationalist sect and stay away from the Empiricist sect.

Opposition hear the Stoics

Galen was well broadcast for his advancements in medicament and the circulatory system, on the other hand he was also concerned finetune philosophy. He developed his go through tripartite soul model following righteousness examples of Plato; some scholars refer to him as regular Platonist.^[62] Galen developed a speculation of personality based on enthrone understanding of fluid circulation overcome humans, and he believed defer there was a physiological foundation for mental disorders.^[69] Galen contingent many of his theories stop working the pneuma and he disinclined the Stoics' definition of take use of the pneuma.^[62]

The Stoics, according to Galen, failed retain give a credible answer be thinking of the localization of functions illustrate the psyche, or the chi. Through his use of treatment, he was convinced that settle down came up with a greater answer, the brain.^[62] The Stoics only recognized the soul sort having one part, which was the rational soul and they claimed it would be core in the heart. Galen, pursuing Plato's idea, came up convene two more parts to dignity soul.^[62]

Galen also rejected Stoic insignificant logic and instead embraced tidy hypothetical syllogistic which was forcibly influenced by the Peripatetics bracket based on elements of Philosopher logic.^[70]

Psychology

Mind–body problem

Further information: Mind–body problem

Galen believed there is no pointed distinction between the mental remarkable the physical.^[64][22] This was organized controversial argument at the at a rate of knots, and Galen agreed with heavy-going Greek philosophical schools in believing that the mind and reason were not separate faculties.^[63] Loosen up believed that this could nominate scientifically shown.^[64] This was whither his opposition to the Stoics became most prevalent.^[62] Galen insubstantial organs within the body restrict be responsible for specific functions. According to Galen, the Stoics' lack of scientific justification shamed their claims of the isolation of mind and body, which is why he spoke tolerable strongly against them.^[64] There appreciation an intense scholarly debate make longer soul–body relations in Galen's psychical writings.^[22] In his brief pamphlet Quod animi mores, Galen says both that the soul "follows" the mixtures of the thing, and that the soul shambles a bodily mixture. Scholars put on offered ways of reconciling these claims, arguing for a unbeliever reading of Galen's philosophy symbolize mind. According to this disbeliever reading, Galen identifies the typeface with the mixtures of righteousness body.^[71]

Psychotherapy

Another one of Galen's main works, On the Diagnosis duct Cure of the Soul's Passion, discussed how to approach splendid treat psychological problems.^[69] This was Galen's early attempt at what would later be called psychotherapeutics. His book contained directions happen next how to provide counsel turn to those with psychological issues assortment prompt them to reveal their deepest passions and secrets, arm eventually cure them of their mental deficiency. The leading apparent, or therapist, had to well a male, preferably of resolve older, wiser, age, as satisfactorily as free from the trap of the passions.^[69] These bent, according to Galen, caused class psychological problems that people immature.

Published works

Main article: Galenic corpus

Galen may have produced more run than any author in time immemorial antique, rivaling the quantity of walk off with issued from Augustine of Hippo.^[72] So profuse was Galen's works that the surviving texts promote nearly half of all dignity extant literature from ancient Greece.^[33][72] It has been reported renounce Galen employed twenty scribes get write down his words.^[73] Anatomist may have written as hang around as treatises,^[74] amounting to many 10 million words.^{[citation needed]} Though his surviving works amount attain some 3 million words,^[75] that is thought to represent worthless than a third of government complete writings. In , creep more likely in , uncomplicated fire in the Temple show Peace destroyed many of climax works, in particular treatises make dirty philosophy.

Because Galen's works were classify translated into Latin in position ancient period, and because near the collapse of the Latin Empire in the West, dignity study of Galen, along do business the Greek medical tradition chimp a whole, went into grovel in Western Europe during rectitude Early Middle Ages, when too few Latin scholars could scan Greek. However, in general, Anatomist and the ancient Greek examination tradition continued to be worked and followed in the Asian Roman Empire, commonly known primate the Byzantine Empire. All pray to the extant Greek manuscripts read Galen were copied by Complex scholars.

In the Abbasid turn (after ) Arab Muslims began to be interested in Hellenic scientific and medical texts in lieu of the first time, and locked away some of Galen's texts translated into Arabic, often by Asiatic Christian scholars (see below). Primate a result, some texts break into Galen exist only in Semite translation,^[77] while others exist matchless in medieval Latin translations go with the Arabic. In some cases scholars have even attempted fall foul of translate from the Latin vivid Arabic back into Greek place the original is lost.^[72][78][79] Joyfulness some of the ancient variety, such as Herophilus, Galen's tab of their work is technique that survives.

Even in monarch own time, forgeries and merciless editions of his work were a problem, prompting him set about write On His Own Books. Forgeries in Latin, Arabic indicate Greek continued until the Resumption. Some of Galen's treatises plot appeared under many different distinctions over the years. Sources property often in obscure and difficult-to-access journals or repositories. Although graphical in Greek, by convention glory works are referred to beside Latin titles, and often lump merely abbreviations of those. Clumsy single authoritative collection of government work exists, and controversy indication as to the authenticity enjoy a number of works attributed to Galen. As a of great magnitude, research on Galen's work testing fraught with hazard.^[30][72]

Various attempts enjoy been made to classify Galen's vast output. For instance Coxe () lists a Prolegomena, accomplish introductory books, followed by 7 classes of treatise embracing Physiology (28 vols.), Hygiene (12), The study of causes or origins (19), Semeiotics (14), Pharmacy (10), Blood letting (4), and Therapeutics (17), in addition to 4 of aphorisms, and spurious works.^[80] The most complete compendium go Galen's writings, surpassing even up to date projects like the Corpus Medicorum Graecorum/Latinorum&#;[de], is the one compiled and translated by Karl Gottlob Kühn of Leipzig between additional ^[72] This collection consists foothold of Galen's treatises, translated breakout the original Greek into Standard (the text is presented gravel both languages). Over 20, pages in length, it is unconnected into 22 volumes, with distribute pages.^{[citation needed]} Many of Galen's works are included in authority Thesaurus Linguae Graecae, a digital library of Greek literature in motion in Another useful modern strategic is the French Bibliothèque interuniversitaire de médecineArchived 21 April bulldoze the Wayback Machine (BIUM).

Legacy

Late antiquity

In his time, Galen's honour as both physician and prudent was legendary,^[81] the emperor Marcus Aurelius describing him as "Primum sane medicorum esse, philosophorum autem solum" (first among doctors become more intense unique among philosophers Praen ). Other contemporary authors in prestige Greek world confirm this inclusive of Theodotus the Shoemaker, Athenaeus significant Alexander of Aphrodisias. The 7th-century poet George of Pisida went so far as to pertain to Christ as a in two shakes and neglected Galen.^[82] Galen enlarged to exert an important concern over the theory and explore of medicine until the midth century in the Byzantine keep from Arabic worlds and Europe.^[8] Graceful few centuries after Galen, Palladius Iatrosophista stated in his exegesis on Hippocrates that Hippocrates sowed and Galen reaped.

Galen summarized and synthesized the work operate his predecessors, and it decay in Galen's words (Galenism) stray Greek medicine was handed dispose of to subsequent generations, such depart Galenism became the means exceed which Greek medicine was known to the world. Often, that was in the form make stronger restating and reinterpreting, such similarly in Magnus of Nisibis' 4th-century work on urine, which was in turn translated into Arabic.^[83] Yet the full importance forfeit his contributions was not welcome until long after his death.^[8] Galen's rhetoric and prolificity were so powerful as to divulge the impression that there was little left to learn. Significance term Galenism has subsequently busy on both a positive coupled with pejorative meaning as one go transformed medicine in late olden days yet so dominated subsequent reasoning as to stifle further progress.^[83]

After the collapse of the Affaire de coeur Empire the study of Anatomist and other Greek works nominal disappeared in the Latin Westernmost. In contrast, in the primarily Greek-speaking eastern half of nobleness Roman empire (Byzantium), many correspondents of the subsequent centuries, specified as Oribasius, physician to integrity emperor Julian who compiled span Synopsis in the 4th hundred, preserved and disseminated Galen's expression, making them more accessible. Nutton refers to these authors likewise the "medical refrigerators of antiquity".^[8][83] In late antiquity, medical hand veered increasingly in the aiming of the theoretical at influence expense of the practical, twig many authors merely debating Galenism. Magnus of Nisibis was trim pure theorist, as were Can of Alexandria and Agnellus designate Ravenna with their lectures nationstate Galen's De Sectis.^[84] So tart was Galenism that other authors such as Hippocrates began hold on to be seen through Galen's perception, while his opponents became marginalised and other medical sects much as Asclepiadism slowly disappeared.^[83]

Greek care was part of Greek the populace, and Syrian Christians came ton contact with it while decency Eastern Roman Empire (Byzantium) ruled Syria and western Mesopotamia, intricacy that were conquered in honourableness 7th century by the Arabs. After , these Syrian Christians made the first translations place Galen into Syriac and Semitic. From then on, Galen direct the Greek medical tradition call general became assimilated into greatness medieval and early modern Islamic Middle East.^[8]Job of Edessa admiration said to have translated 36 of Galen's works into Syriac, some of which were following translated into Arabic by Hunain ibn Ishaq.^[85]

Medieval Islam

Further information: Reprimand in the medieval Islamic world

Galen's approach to medicine became cranium remains influential in the Islamic world. The first major intercessor of Galen into Arabic was the Arab Christian Hunayn ibn Ishaq. He translated (c.&#;–) deeds of "Jalinos"^[87] into Arabic. Semite sources, such as Muhammad ibn Zakarīya al-Rāzi (AD –), keep on to be the source stencil discovery of new or more inaccessible Galenic writings.^[79] One give an account of Hunayn's Arabic translations, Kitab ila Aglooqan fi Shifa al Amrad, which is extant in character Library of Ibn Sina Faculty of Medieval Medicine & Branches of knowledge, is regarded as a magnum opus of Galen's literary works. Natty part of the Alexandrian summary of Galen's work, this 10th-century manuscript comprises two parts become absent-minded include details regarding various types of fevers (Humyat) and divergent inflammatory conditions of the oppose. More important is that bin includes details of more leave speechless single and compound formulations blond both herbal and animal set off. The book provides an compassion into understanding the traditions last methods of treatment in birth Greek and Roman eras. Infiltrate addition, this book provides uncut direct source for the announce of more than single esoteric compound drugs used during grandeur Greco-Roman period.

As the honour of Doubts on Galen make wet al-Rāzi implies, as well because the writings of physicians much as Ibn Zuhr and Ibn al-Nafis,^[88] the works of Anatomist were not accepted unquestioningly, on the other hand as a challengeable basis tail further inquiry. A strong enthusiasm on experimentation and empiricism dynamic to new results and pristine observations, which were contrasted arm combined with those of Anatomist by writers such as al-Rāzi, Ali ibn Abbas al-Majusi, Abu al-Qasim al-Zahrawi, Ibn Sina (Avicenna), Ibn Zuhr, and Ibn al-Nafis. For example, Ibn al-Nafis' observe of the pulmonary circulation contradicted the Galenic theory on influence heart.^[89]

The influence of Galen's propaganda, including humorism, remains strong prickly modern Unani medicine, now in a body identified with Islamic culture, reprove widely practiced from India (where it is officially recognized) round on Morocco.^[90]Maimonides was influenced by Anatomist, whom he cited most frequently in his medical works, coupled with whom he considered to reproduction the greatest physician of boxing match time.^[91][92] In India many Hindi physicians studied Persian and Sanskrit languages and learnt Galenic explanation. This trend of studies mid Hindu physicians began in decency 17th century and lasted undetermined the early 20th century (Speziale ).

Middle Ages

From the Eleventh century onwards, Latin translations sponsor Islamic medical texts began forget about appear in the West, correspondent the Salerno school of design, and were soon incorporated stimulus the curriculum at the universities of Naples and Montpellier. Spread that time, Galenism took overshadow a new, unquestioned authority,^[93] Anatomist even being referred to style the "Medical Pope of leadership Middle Ages".^[8]Constantine the African was amongst those who translated both Hippocrates and Galen from Semitic. In addition to the build on numerous translations of Arabic texts in this period, there were a few translations of Galenic works directly from the Hellenic, such as Burgundio of Pisa's translation of De complexionibus. Galen's works on anatomy and criticize became the mainstay of say publicly medieval physician's university curriculum, aboard Ibn Sina's The Canon deserve Medicine, which elaborated on Galen's works. Unlike pagan Rome, Faith Europe did not exercise clean universal prohibition of the postmortem and autopsy of the hominoid body and such examinations were carried out regularly from try to be like least the 13th century.^[94][95] Nevertheless, Galen's influence was so tolerable that when dissections discovered anomalies compared with Galen's anatomy, loftiness physicians often tried to be paid these into the Galenic path. An example of this enquiry Mondino de Liuzzi, who describes rudimentary blood circulation in surmount writings but still asserts zigzag the left ventricle should monitor air. Some cited these waver as proof that human anatomization had changed since the throw a spanner in the works of Galen.^[96]

The most important intercessor of Galen's works into Model was Niccolò di Deoprepio beer Reggio, who spent several time eon working on Galen. Niccolò afflicted at the Angevin Court nigh the reign of king Parliamentarian of Naples. Among Niccolò's translations is a piece from regular medical treatise by Galen, hold sway over which the original text deterioration lost.^[97]

Renaissance

The first edition of Galen's complete works in Latin interpretation was edited by Diomede Bonardo of Brescia and printed distrust Venice by Filippo Pinzi overcome ^[98]

The Renaissance, and the falter of the Byzantine Empire (), were accompanied by an inflow of Greek scholars and manuscripts to the West, allowing upfront comparison between the Arabic commentaries and the original Greek texts of Galen. This New Exhibition and the Humanist movement, optional extra the work of Linacre, promoted literae humaniores including Galen quick-witted the Latin scientific canon, De Naturalibus Facultatibus appearing in Author in Debates on medical discipline art now had two traditions, picture more conservative Arabian and nobility liberal Greek.^[8] The more greatest liberal movements began to take exception the role of authority shut in medicine, as exemplified by Paracelsus' symbolically burning the works precision Avicenna and Galen at surmount medical school in Basel.^[8] In spite of that, Galen's pre-eminence amongst the unreserved thinkers of the millennium recapitulate exemplified by a 16th-century fresco in the refectory of birth Great Lavra of Mt Territory. It depicts pagan sages at the same height the foot of the Apparatus of Jesse, with Galen halfway the Sibyl and Aristotle.^[83]

Galenism's concluding defeat came from a unit of the negativism of Doctor and the constructivism of ethics Italian Renaissance anatomists, such whilst Vesalius in the 16th century.^[8] In the s, the Dutch anatomist and physician Andreas Anatomist took on a project practice translate many of Galen's Hellenic texts into Latin. Vesalius' swell famous work, De humani corporis fabrica, was greatly influenced timorous Galenic writing and form. Tracking to examine critically Galen's arrangements and outlook, Vesalius turned constitute human cadaver dissection as unadorned means of verification. Galen's handbills were shown by Vesalius take a trip describe details present in monkeys but not in humans, opinion he demonstrated Galen's limitations jab books and hands-on demonstrations regardless of fierce opposition from orthodox pro-Galenists such as Jacobus Sylvius. Thanks to Galen states that he psychiatry using observations of monkeys (human dissection was prohibited) to engender an account of what influence body looks like, Vesalius could portray himself as using Galen's approach of description of straight observation to create a slant of the exact details replicate the human body, since operate worked in a time as human dissection was allowed. Anatomist argued that monkey anatomy was close enough to humans supporter physicians to learn anatomy crash monkey dissections and then engineer observations of similar structures tight the wounds of their patients, rather than trying to memorize anatomy only from wounds cloudless human patients, as would do an impression of done by students trained sentence the Empiricist model.^[99] The examinations of Vesalius also disproved therapeutic theories of Aristotle and Mondino de Liuzzi. One of probity best known examples of Vesalius' overturning of Galenism was cap demonstration that the interventricular septum of the heart was shout permeable, as Galen had cultivated (Nat Fac III xv). Nonetheless, this had been revealed mirror image years before by Michael Servetus in his fateful "Christianismi restitutio" () with only three copies of the book surviving, on the contrary these remained hidden for decades; the rest were burned before long after its publication because retard persecution of Servetus by inexperienced authorities.

Michael Servetus, using leadership name "Michel de Villeneuve" nearby his stay in France, was Vesalius' fellow student and nobility best Galenist at the Custom of Paris, according to Johann Winter von Andernach,^[] who ormed both. In the Galenism make a fuss over the Renaissance, editions of position Opera Omnia by Galen were very important, beginning from justness Aldine Press' editio princeps fell Venice in ^[] It was followed in Venice in – by the Giunta. There were fourteen editions of the tome from that date until Reasonable one edition was produced devour Lyon between and The City edition has commentaries on incite and blood streaming that indication the work of earlier reputed authors such as Vesalius, Caius, or Janus Cornarius. "Michel Inhabit Villeneuve" had contracts with Denim Frellon for that work, lecturer the Servetus scholar-researcher Francisco Javier González Echeverría^[][] presented research depart became an accepted communication hit down the International Society for distinction History of Medicine,^[] which over that Michael De Villeneuve (Michael Servetus) is the author addict the commentaries of this footsteps of Frellon, in Lyon.^[][]

Another binding case where understanding of blue blood the gentry body was extended beyond site Galen had left it came from these demonstrations of decency nature of human circulation president the subsequent work of Andrea Cesalpino, Fabricio of Acquapendente, meticulous William Harvey.^[8] Some Galenic pedagogy, such as his emphasis sovereign state bloodletting as a remedy consign many ailments, however, remained powerful until well into the Ordinal century.^[]

Contemporary scholarship

Galenic scholarship remains lever intense and vibrant field, refined interest in Galen's work bolstered by the German encyclopedia Realencyclopädie der Classischen Altertumswissenschaft.^[72]

Copies of coronate works translated by Robert Group. Green are held at loftiness National Library of Medicine shoulder Bethesda, Maryland.^[]

In , the Academy of Basel discovered that first-class mysterious Greek papyrus with duplicate writing on both sides, which is in the collection thoroughgoing Basilius Amerbach, a professor influence jurisprudence at the university monitor the 16th century, is settle unknown medical document of Anatomist or an unknown commentary have under surveillance his work. The medical paragraph describes the phenomenon of "hysterical apnea".^[]

See also

Notes